https://www.duramatters.com/blog daily 0.75 2019-12-28 https://www.duramatters.com/blog/2019/12/28/fall-from-grace monthly 0.5 2019-12-31 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1577660810330-LQUT70250IVIOTA1CWZ3/Bigotolith.jpg Blog - Fall from Grace Fig 3. Drawing of the the utricle and saccule. They sense linear movement via small stones or crystals called otoconia floating embedded in gel in the endolymph which contact specialized hair cells embedded in the walls of the two sensory apparatus. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1577563238549-Q7RI5ZJ16M2R7VT51YZL/AnatomyHumanEar.gif Blog - Fall from Grace Fig 1. The ear. The tympanum or tympanic membrane seperates the middle and inner ear from the ear canal.The middle ear houses the ossicles, which transmit sound from the ear drum or tympanic membrane to the cochlea in the inner ear. The inner ear contains the cohlea which processes sound and the vestibular labyrinth, which processes head position and acceleration. The information is transmitted to the brainstem via the 8th cranial nerve also called auditory or vestibulocochlear nerve. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1577563183612-5B3G3E7NW6USQMUMXN51/720px-Blausen_0329_EarAnatomy_InternalEar+%281%29.png Blog - Fall from Grace Fig 2, An enlargement of the inner ear. The tympanic membrane, vestibular apparatus, the ear drum, middle ear, and inner ear. The inner ear contains the cohlea which processes sound and the vestibular labyrinth, which processes head position and acceleration. We have two vestibular labyrinths, one in each ear, and they are mirror images of each other. Each contains 5 fluid filled (endolymphatic fluid) receptor organs. Three semicircular canals, oriented at 90 to each other which measure angular acceleration, each one oriented to pick up movement in a different plane. The urticule and saccule which measure linear acceleration. The utricle and saccule sense linear movement via small stones or crystals called otoconia floating embedded in gel in the endolymph which contact specialized hair cells embedded in the walls of the two sensory apparatus ( Image courtesy of Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. - Own work, CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=29025011) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1577660667971-IXJHTJ6E71D4FK8MPOO5/Vestibular_system%27s_semicircular_canal-_a_cross-section.jpg Blog - Fall from Grace fig 4, Drawing of a semicircular canal, with the cupula in the ampulla, the widest region of the canal. Due to inertia, the fluid lags with angular acceleration and displaces the cupula. https://www.duramatters.com/blog/2019/8/12/the-plan monthly 0.5 2019-08-12 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1565630031733-K94IB5UJLX2AV2B3SA94/Prefrontal_cortex_%28left%29_animation.gif Blog - The Plan Fig 1. Left frontal lobe highlighted in red. The prefrontal and premotor cortex are both within the frontal lobe. By Polygon data were generated by Database Center for Life Science(DBCLS)[2]. - Polygon data are from BodyParts3D[1], CC BY-SA 2.1 jp, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=32489917 https://www.duramatters.com/blog/2019/5/6/putting-it-all-together monthly 0.5 2019-05-16 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1557851646669-ZTGVPN7V42B94P26V7O0/537px-Blausen_0101_Brain_LateralView.png Blog - Putting It All Together. fig 2. Lateral view of the brain. By BruceBlaus - Own work, CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=31118589 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1557760834656-2QDT5XZ2QHJSXSU86SAQ/1424_Visual_Streams.jpg Blog - Putting It All Together. Fig 1. Dorsal and ventral visual streams. Remember, these parallel streams are paired, the same thing is happening in the right cerebral hemisphere as well. By OpenStax College - Anatomy & Physiology, Connexions Web site. http://cnx.org/content/col11496/1.6/, Jun 19, 2013., CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=30148013 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1557851400145-DJLMMXRRNB93UPRP4OT2/640px-Blausen_0614_LimbicSystem.png Blog - Putting It All Together. fig 3. The Limbic system functions in memory and emotion. Injury and illnesses involving limbic system result in some interesting and tragic disorders that fundamentally change our sense of self and will be the topic of a future post. By BruceBlaus. :Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. - Own work, CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=31118604 https://www.duramatters.com/blog/2019/2/19/ulbfwovz7drvsc3ac5kfn7rvj2rugv monthly 0.5 2019-05-09 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1550766744857-598O7KFB265OI8B9ZQHD/sparring3.JPG Blog - I See You. The Story of a Front Kick. Part F. Fig 2. A & B represent two points on an image. The reflected from those two (and every) point spreads in different directions. The lens in eye focuses these rays in a single point of retina. Due to the refraction of the biconvex lens the image ends up inverted and reversed on the retina.This happens not just at the top and bottom of the biconvex lens, but all around it, so the image ends up inverted and flipped on the retina. Physics and neurology?!?! In the same post?!?! Best…Day…Ever. The image of our sparring partner (yes I am an adult, and no, my record against her is not great) will end up inverted and reversed on our retina . Adapted from Javalenok - By Inkskape, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=25728443, to include the author’s 8 yr old daughter. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1550595560672-C4J8QSS1E0YXVGTZ39LU/480px-Blausen_0389_EyeAnatomy_02.png Blog - I See You. The Story of a Front Kick. Part F. Fig 1. Cross section of the eye. The fovea, which sits at the center of the macula, the part of the retina with the clearest image, , is mostly to completely cone cells. The extra foveal part of the retina (basically everything in your peripheral vision) has a higher proportion of rods cells. The pupil is the opening in the eye that allows light to enter, the size of the pupil is controlled by the iris. The lens refracts the light and focuses it on the retina. The cornea is the surface layer. staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436., CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=29025015 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1551637403298-CMB8AKC23S4W9Q1EO7BE/visual+pathways.JPG Blog - I See You. The Story of a Front Kick. Part F. Fig 3. The human visual pathway. The top image of our sparring partner is the combined image. When the reflected light bounces off our sparring partner and passes through the lens, it is inverted and flipped on the retina of both eyes. It is then carried via the optic nerves to the optic chiasm, where parts of both optic nerves cross and part stays on the same side. At this point, all the visual information for the L hemi visual field, so if we are looking straight at our sparring partner, everthing form her midline all the way to the fartherest corner of our perpheral visual field on the left is headed odd to be processed in the R occipital lobe, after a quick stop in the lateral geniculate nucleus for some eaerly processing, which is represented by the red pathway. The pathway for the R visual field is represented by the teal pathway. Everything you see on the right half of your vision, from you nose out to the fartherest reach of your peripheral vision, will be processed by the left occipital lobe. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1551633618952-5BDMVTTUST7BA1N5ZBDW/dorsal+and+ventral+stream.JPG Blog - I See You. The Story of a Front Kick. Part F. Fig 4. The dorsal and ventral visual streams. The dorsal is represented in green, the ventral in gray. By Selket - I (Selket) made this from File:Gray728.svg, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1679336 https://www.duramatters.com/blog/2019/2/3/peripheral-nervous-system-the-story-of-a-front-kick-part-e monthly 0.5 2019-03-14 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1549912001779-HU97PXFOT5FSAVZIPPCE/250px-Foraminaintervertebralia.png Blog - Peripheral Nervous System. The Story of a Front Kick. Part E. Fig 4. Lateral view of the spinal column. The arrows are pointing to the intervertebral (or neural) foramen, which are the opening through which the spinal nerves travel to and from the spinal cord. Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1601710 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1549414265680-09KYZCSYZ71KDJXS2R82/PCMan2.jpg Blog - Peripheral Nervous System. The Story of a Front Kick. Part E. Our shy dermatome map model. C represents the cervical spinal levels, so C5= 5th cervical spinal nerve. D represents the thoracic, and in most current literature has been changed to T. L represents lumbar, and S represents sacral. The ribs are labeled I-XI, and the 12th rib is not shown. Adapted from- http://www.springerlink.com/content/h25t2658333v02mp/?p=81668d0e1acc45c785d3f06396a40075&pi=0, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2164109 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1550072034937-FN02YN1LZNJBT0GMFX32/Brachial_plexus.jpg Blog - Peripheral Nervous System. The Story of a Front Kick. Part E. Fig 7. Diagram of the brachial plexus. It is formed by C5-T1 spinal nerves. Each time it splits or comes together again the nerves take on a different name, The cords, which are the last major part that is still considered brachial plexus, will become the median, ulnar, axillary, and radial nerves, which will all branch again on their way to innervate the arm and hand. There are many other nerves that come off the brachial plexus at different points as well. In the first few days of medical school, we started gross dissections of the brachial plexus. I was not yet comfortable in my new role as a medical student, and so many years later, it still brings back vivid memories of formaldehyde and angst. By Gray - Gray's Anatomy, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4245589 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1549497905126-8RVINNMHVBZ6Z0WFWOI9/Adapted+man.jpg Blog - Peripheral Nervous System. The Story of a Front Kick. Part E. Fig 1. The nervous system. Everything outside of the central nervous system makes up the peripheral nervous system. Title: Elementary anatomy, physiology and hygiene for higher grammar grades Year: 1900 (1900s) Authors: Hall, Winfield Scott, b. 1861 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1550025873564-366SAI6U6XWIKUAXXZQV/402px-1319_Nerve_StructureN+%282%29.jpg Blog - Peripheral Nervous System. The Story of a Front Kick. Part E. Fig 2. Cross-section of a spinal nerve showing the inner layers around the bundles of axons called the perineurim, the outer layer, called the epineurim, and the blood vessels. Adapted from OpenStax College - Anatomy & Physiology, Connexions Web site. http://cnx.org/content/col11496/1.6/, Jun 19, 2013. CC BY 3.0 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1550070871739-4786ZO5PC4WM1Y71PD2G/512px-Diagram_of_the_Spinal_Cord_Unlabeled1.jpg Blog - Peripheral Nervous System. The Story of a Front Kick. Part E. Cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spinal nerves and plexuses The brachial plexus is formed from the cervical and the first thoracic spinal nerve the lubosacral plexus is formed from the lumbar and sacral spinal nerves). Adapted from Andrewmeyerson - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=49411614 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1550013534701-M5QLA7JG8MA0MOKZW0HL/1024px-Spinal_nerve.svg.png Blog - Peripheral Nervous System. The Story of a Front Kick. Part E. Fig 3. A spinal nerve is formed when a motor roots (the ventral root) join with its correponding sensory root (dorsal root). This immediately splits into a dorsal and ventral rami. They also split off into the white and gray rami which are part of the autonomic nervous system. The cell bodies (soma) for the sensory nerves are located outside the spinal cord in the dorsal root ganglion, where as the cell bodies for the motor nerves are located within the gray matter of the spinal cord. By Mysid (original by Tristanb) - Vectorized in CorelDraw by Mysid on an existing image at en-wiki by Tristanb., CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1420508 https://www.duramatters.com/blog/2019/1/26/spinal-cord-the-story-of-a-front-kick-part-d monthly 0.5 2019-03-14 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1549038594671-ZDWKVYQN7NTADVBU2A9Y/Blausen_0838_Sympathetic_Innervation.png Blog - What’s Back There. The Story of a Front Kick. Part D. Fig 4. Summary of the sympathetic nervious system as mediated by the spinal cord. Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. - Own work, CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=28086441 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1549034931267-VLGANK16ER0Q599RMZRT/360px-Blausen_0822_SpinalCord.png Blog - What’s Back There. The Story of a Front Kick. Part D. Fig 1. The spinal cord showing 31 pairs of nerves exiting the cord. By BruceBlaus - Own work, CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=27796969 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1548510550329-UXH8RIKXRIUJ1RIQOW4W/spinal%2Bcord%2Blabeled.jpg Blog - What’s Back There. The Story of a Front Kick. Part D. Fig 2. Cervical, thoracic, and lumbar segments of the spinal cord. Adapted from Andrewmeyerson - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=49411614 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1549037083014-AIZBC96L5VQN4QP555YH/spinal+cord+cross+section.jpg Blog - What’s Back There. The Story of a Front Kick. Part D. Fig 2. Cross section of the spinal cord. The gray matter is central with the white matter surrounding the outside. The cells that will form the motor component of the peripheral nervous system are located in the ventral horn of the gray matter, their axons travel out through the ventral root to join with axons from sensory neurons that enter the spinal cord through the dorsal root to make a spinal nerve as part of the peripheral nervous system. Cell bodies (soma) for sensory nerves are located not in the spinal cord, but in what is called the dorsal root ganglion. Tracts of axons running to and from the brain travel through the white matter. Not pictured are cell bodies for the sympathetic nervous system. http://cnx.org/contents/GFy_h8cu@10.53:rZudN6XP@2/Introduction https://www.duramatters.com/blog/2019/1/10/the-story-of-a-front-kick-part-c monthly 0.5 2019-03-14 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1547850589975-U54MNOQERC9HYXLB5UF2/Blausen_0101_Brain_LateralView.png Blog - It’s All in Your Head. The Story of a Front Kick. Part C. Figure 3. A lateral view of the brain. The frontal lobe, parietal lobes, temporal lobes, and occipital lobes make up the cerebral hemispheres. The central sulcus is the fissure that separates the frontal and parietal lobes, the frontal gyrus is involved in control of movement, the post central gyrus is where sensory information is processed. The cerebellum plays a role in initiation and control of movement among other things. The midbrain (not shown), pons, make up the brainstem. Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1547685644802-I3LVYN693B3BGKCK9F2W/Elementary_anatomy%2C_physiology_and_hygiene_for_higher_grammar_grades_%281900%29_%2814595172130%29.jpg Blog - It’s All in Your Head. The Story of a Front Kick. Part C. Fig 1. A posterior view of the nervous system. A, The cerebral hemispheres. B. The cerebellum. C. I can’t really tell what that is pointing at, maybe the hip? (okay, per the author, it is pointing at the sciatic nerve, but it could be labeled better). Title: Elementary anatomy, physiology and hygiene for higher grammar grades Year: 1900 (1900s) Authors: Hall, Winfield Scott, b. 1861 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1548038272465-ZZWF4J746378MSUON5K7/800px-Blausen_0115_BrainStructures.png Blog - It’s All in Your Head. The Story of a Front Kick. Part C. Fig 2. A lateral view of the brain. The cerebrum is made up of the paired cerebral hemispheres. The midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata make up the brainstem. A sulcus is a fissure on the surface of the brain, and separates the surface into ridges called gyri. The cerebellum plays a role in initiation and control of movement among other things. The diencephalon is a collection of midline nuclei that serve many functions, the hypothalamus is involved in regulation of different systemic processes like sleep and temperature, and the thalamus is involved in sensory processing among other things. Blausen.com staff (2014) ). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1548006858252-QPWGTV7RPZA0L50V5VW2/coronal+brain+gray.jpg Blog - It’s All in Your Head. The Story of a Front Kick. Part C. Figure 3. MRI showing the gray matter and white matter. Adapted from Coronal T2 (grey scale inverted) MRI of the brain at the level of the the caudate nuclei. Image from Radiopaedia.org Dr Frank Gaillard. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1548008310542-N05QC2TAS0T679D5PRKR/Blausen_0284_CranialNerves.png Blog - It’s All in Your Head. The Story of a Front Kick. Part C. Fig 4.Human brain as viewed from the bottom showing 12 pairs of cranial nerves coming off the brainstem and their functions. As an aside, in medical school there is a mnemonic we learned the memorize the pairs of nerves. There are two, actually, one clean one that we were taught by the anatomy professor, and a less clean one that is passed on from other students. I do not remember the clean one. The other one, well, maybe after we get to know each other better. Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436 https://www.duramatters.com/blog/2019/1/6/origins-the-story-of-a-front-kick-part-2 monthly 0.5 2019-03-14 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1546989648106-FNZI580XD1DT8V23XZP2/neuron.JPG Blog - Starting Small. The Story of a Front Kick Part B. Fig. 1, a neuron. The dentrites receive information via receptors. The cell body is where the information is processed. The nucleus, which contains the genetic information for the cell, is in the cell body. The axon transmites the electrical signal, called the action potential, to other cells. The axon terminal is the part of the axon in contact with other cells. The axon is insulated by myelin, which is made by Schwann cells ( in the peripheral nervous system), and by similar cells in the central nervous system. The gaps between the myelin are called the nodes of Ranvier. The electrical signal is transmitted along the outside of the myelin, and jumps between the nodes of Ranvier. Originally Neuron.jpg taken from the US Federal (public domain) (Nerve Tissue, retrieved March 2007), redrawn by User:Dhp1080 in Illustrator. Source: "Anatomy and Physiology" by the US National Cancer Institute's Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) Program https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1546917886174-ACXSDH7MYJKE6PG4P0DI/ActionPotential.png Blog - Starting Small. The Story of a Front Kick Part B. Fig 4. Action potential across a cell membrane as a function of time. The change across a cell membrane at rest is -70mV. When a stimulus is applied that open some channels across the cell membrane, the potential changes. If enough stimulus is applied, and the charge across the membrane reaches -55mV, the threshold is reached, and the the axon depolarizes, which means it fires or (generates an action potential. If the stimulus is not enough, and the membrane does not reach the threshold, it will not fire. Once a neuron fires, it must reset in preparation to fire again, callied repolarization. During this time, and the refractory period, it cannot fire. This is repolarization and the refractory period. This Wikipedia and Wikimedia Commons image is from the user Chris 73 and is freely available at //commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:ActionPotential.png under the creative commons cc-by-sa 3.0 license. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1546966582731-WNAPCISVMS7IPMU8QFG5/512px-Saltatory_Conduction.gif Blog - Starting Small. The Story of a Front Kick Part B. Action potential conduction down an unmyelinated neuron, left, and a myelinated neuron, right. The signal is able to jump from node to node on the myelinated axon, and travels much faster. http://docjana.com/saltatory-conduction/ ; https://www.patreon.com/posts/4374048AuthorDr. Jana https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1546964673840-5BHADV7YQGRIC9RT7GME/Sodium_channel_open_closed+%281%29.jpg Blog - Starting Small. The Story of a Front Kick Part B. Fig 2. Sodium (Na) movement through a channel across a cell membrane. When the channel is open, sodium moves along a concentration gradient from higher concentration outside the cell to inside the cell. When the channel is closed, sodium cannot move into the cell. 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Fig 1. Lancelet. While not a vertebrate, they provide clues about early vertebrate evolution, and are thought to be one of the earliest vertebrate ancestors with a primitive olfactory system. By © Hans Hillewaert, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5712836 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b994c692971142825de25d7/1561654617037-2E318VYBYJZDTTTIS9A2/523px-Head_Olfactory_Nerve_Labeled.png To Make a Long Story Short - Egads, What's that Smell?!?! Fig 2. Olfactory System. Several million olfactory neurons extend from the top of the nasal cavity up through a perforated area of the skull called the cribiform plate. They meet up with the olfactory bulb (which is commonly taught to be cranial nerve I, CN I. the Olfactory Nerve, though technically the millions of neurons transversing the cribiform plate are CN I). Because the fibers pass through the bony cribiform plate, they are subject to injury The remainder of the pathway is not pictured but from there, connections go to the opposite olfactory bulb, amygdala, entorhinal cortex, and on to the thalamus, orbitofrontal hippocampus, and brainstem. By Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator - Patrick J. 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